Tunneling nanomechanical switches and tunable plasmonic nanogaps

ABSTRACT

Devices comprising at least two electrodes with a layer disposed therebetween are disclosed. In some embodiments, the layer disposed therebetween may be an insulator. In some embodiments, the layer may be capable of being deformed. Deforming the layer may cause a change in one or more materials properties of the device, such as the electrical properties and/or the optical properties of the device.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims priority under 35 U.S.C. § 119(e) to U.S.Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 62/252,771, filed Nov. 9, 2015and entitled “Tunneling Nanomechanical Switches” and to U.S. ProvisionalPatent Application Ser. No. 62/252,762, filed Nov. 9, 2015 and entitled“Tunable Plasmonic Nanogaps”, both of which are incorporated herein byreference in its entirety for all purposes.

FIELD

The present invention relates generally to nanoscale mechanical devicesthat use nanoscale mechanical deformation to adjust electrical, optical,plasmonic properties of the system with applications inelectromechanical devices (e.g. switches), and optomechanical devices,among others.

BACKGROUND

Nanoscale and microscale electromechanical switches and optomechanicaldevices have been developed for various applications.

In digital electronics there is a desire for improved efficiency.Conventional switches are implemented by semiconductor devices (e.g.,transistors). Electromechanical switches have been considered as oneoption to improve efficiency. There is a desire for improvedelectromechanical devices to meet this need and others.

There is a desire for improved optomechanical devices for efficientoptical communication and information processing, sensors and actuators,displays and other applications.

SUMMARY

Methods and articles related to electromechanical switches as well asrelated components and methods associated therewith are provided. Thesubject matter of the present invention involves, in some cases,interrelated products, alternative solutions to a particular problem,and/or a plurality of different uses of one or more systems and/orarticles.

In one embodiment, a device comprises a first electrode, a secondelectrode, and a deformable layer positioned between the first electrodeand the second electrode. The first electrode may be electricallyisolated. In some embodiments, the first electrode may be a mechanicallyfloating electrode. In some embodiments, the deformable layer isconfigured such that tunneling may occur between the first electrode andthe second electrode when the deformable layer is compressed.

In another embodiment, a device comprises a first electrode, a secondelectrode, and a deformable layer positioned between the first electrodeand the second electrode. Both the first electrode and the secondelectrode may have a surface roughness of less than or equal to 0.5 nm.The deformable layer may be configured such that tunneling may occurbetween the first electrode and the second electrode when the deformablelayer is compressed.

In another embodiment, a device comprises a first electrode, a secondelectrode, and a deformable layer positioned between the first electrodeand the second electrode, wherein deformation of the deformable layercauses the plasmon resonance wavelength to shift from a first wavelengthto a second wavelength.

In another embodiment, a method of operating a device comprisesreceiving or applying a force at at least one of a first electrode and asecond electrode that deforms a deformable layer positioned between afirst electrode and a second electrode such that the plasmon resonancewavelength shifts from a first wavelength to a second wavelength.

Other advantages and novel features of the present invention will becomeapparent from the following detailed description of various non-limitingembodiments of the invention when considered in conjunction with theaccompanying figures. In cases where the present specification and adocument incorporated by reference include conflicting and/orinconsistent disclosure, the present specification shall control. If twoor more documents incorporated by reference include conflicting and/orinconsistent disclosure with respect to each other, then the documenthaving the later effective date shall control.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Non-limiting embodiments of the present invention will be described byway of example with reference to the accompanying figures, which areschematic and are not intended to be drawn to scale. In the figures,each identical or nearly identical component illustrated is typicallyrepresented by a single numeral. For purposes of clarity, not everycomponent is labeled in every figure, nor is every component of eachembodiment of the invention shown where illustration is not necessary toallow those of ordinary skill in the art to understand the invention. Inthe figures:

FIG. 1 shows, according to some embodiments, a schematic illustration ofa device comprising a first electrode, a second electrode, and a layerpositioned between the first electrode and the second electrode;

FIG. 2 shows, according to some embodiments, a schematic illustration ofthe application of force to a device;

FIG. 3 shows, according to some embodiments, a schematic illustration ofa device comprising a first electrode, a second electrode, a layerpositioned between the first electrode and the second electrode, and aconductive layer positioned within the layer positioned between thefirst electrode and the second electrode;

FIG. 4 shows, according to some embodiments, various materials that maybe employed in electromechanical devices;

FIG. 5 shows, according to some embodiments, various materials that maybe employed in electromechanical devices;

FIG. 6 shows, according to some embodiments, various materials that maybe employed in electromechanical devices;

FIG. 7 shows, according to some embodiments, various materials that maybe employed in electromechanical devices;

FIG. 8 shows, according to some embodiments, a schematic illustration ofa device comprising three electrodes;

FIG. 9 shows, according to some embodiments, a schematic illustration ofa device comprising four electrodes;

FIG. 10 shows, according to some embodiments, a schematic illustrationof a split gate device;

FIG. 11 shows, according to some embodiments, a schematic illustrationof the application of a voltage to a device;

FIG. 12 shows, according to some embodiments, the tunneling current as afunction of applied voltage;

FIG. 13 shows, according to some embodiments, a schematic illustrationof a device comprising graphene top and bottom electrodes;

FIG. 14 shows, according to some embodiments, micrographs of nanocubesand nanoplates;

FIG. 15 shows, according to some embodiments, a schematic illustrationof the application of a voltage to a device and a micrograph of ananocube;

FIG. 16 shows, according to some embodiments, micrographs of nanoplates;

FIG. 17 shows, according to some embodiments, a schematic illustrationof a templated assembly process and a micrograph of a template;

FIG. 18 shows, according to some embodiments, a schematic illustrationof chemical interactions between a layer and one or more electrodes;

FIG. 19 shows, according to some embodiments, a schematic illustrationof a device comprising a gold nanocube monolayer;

FIG. 20 shows, according to some devices, a schematic illustration ofdevices comprising gold nanocubes;

FIG. 21 shows, according to some embodiments, a schematic illustrationof the application of force to a device; and

FIG. 22 shows, according to some embodiments, a schematic illustrationof a device comprising a nanocube electrode and micrographs showing theplasmon resonances from devices.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Articles and methods involving electromechanical devices are generallyprovided. In certain embodiments, a device includes a first electrodeand a second electrode. In some embodiments, a device may include afirst electrode, a second electrode, and a layer positioned between thefirst electrode and the second electrode. In some embodiments, the layermay be deformable while in other embodiments the layer may benon-deformable. In certain embodiments, the layer may be an insulator.

In some embodiments, the devices may have one or more beneficialproperties. For instance, in certain embodiments a voltage applied to atleast one of the first electrode and the second electrode may causetunneling current to flow between the first electrode and the secondelectrode.

In some embodiments, the device may have a plasmon resonance wavelengthin the visible range (e.g., greater than or equal to 500 nm and lessthan or equal to 900 nm). In some embodiments, the device may have aplasmon resonance wavelength in the infrared range, or any other range.Without wishing to be bound by theory, a plasmon resonance is anoscillation of electrons at the surface or surfaces of a conductor underresonance conditions. Plasmon resonances occurring at surfaces in closeproximity to each other may couple to produce a plasmon resonancecharacteristic of the structure. When a plasmon resonance is opticallyexcited, it may cause light at the resonance wavelength to be scattered.In some embodiments, the device may be exposed to light, and light thatis scattered, reflected, and/or transmitted may be detected.

In some embodiments, it may be possible to vary the distance between thefirst electrode and the second electrode by deforming the layerpositioned between the first electrode and the second electrode. Thefirst electrode and the second electrode may be brought closer together,or may be moved further apart. In certain embodiments, changing thedistance between the first electrode and the second electrode may causeone or more of the electrical, optical or other properties of the deviceto change. For instance, the magnitude of the tunneling current betweenthe first electrode and the second electrode may change as the distancebetween the first electrode and the second electrode changes, and/or theplasmon resonance wavelength of the device may change as the distancebetween the first electrode and the second electrode changes.

In some embodiments, the device may comprise a deformable layer whichmay be compressed or expanded. Compression or expansion of thedeformable layer may be caused by mechanical force on one or more of theelectrodes. Such a force may be produced in any of a variety of ways.For example, the force may be produced electrically by establishing avoltage difference between the first electrode and the second electrodeand/or by applying a charge to an electrode that generates a mirrorcharge in the opposing electrode. Alternatively or additionally, theforce can be produced mechanically due to physical contact with anobject, application of a pressure due to a fluid (e.g., a liquid orgas), and/or an acoustic wave that impinges on an electrode, merely byway of example. As another example, the force may be produced as aresult of a chemical reaction that expands or compresses the deformablematerial. The force can also be produced as a result of the applicationof light and/or heat to one or more device components.

The devices disclosed herein may be used in many suitable applications.In some embodiments, the device may serve as a tunneling switch. In someembodiments, the tunneling current through the device may be capable ofbeing switched on or off by compression or expansion of the deformablelayer. When the electrodes are brought within certain proximity, atunneling current can flow between them, such that the switch is turnedon. Conversely, moving the electrodes farther apart significantlyreduces and/or eliminates the tunneling current, such that the switch isturned off.

In some embodiments, the device may be employed as an actuator. Forinstance, the device may transform electrical energy in the form of avoltage difference to mechanical energy in the form of a deformation ofthe deformable layer.

In certain embodiments, the device may be used as a sensor. For example,a change in the distance between the first electrode and the secondelectrode may cause a shift in the plasmon resonance wavelength. Asanother example, a change in the chemical composition of the layerpositioned between the first electrode and the second electrode maycause a shift in the plasmon resonance wavelength.

FIG. 1 shows one non-limiting embodiment of a device. Device 100comprises first electrode 110, second electrode 120, and layer 130positioned between the first electrode and the second electrode. Asdescribed above, in some embodiments layer 130 may be a deformablelayer.

As used herein, the term electrode refers to a layer that iselectronically conducting or semiconducting. In some embodiments, anelectrical potential may be applied to one or more electrodes. In someembodiments, an electrical potential may not be applied to one or moreelectrodes (e.g., a potential may not be applied to first electrode 110,or a potential may not be applied to second electrode 120). In someembodiments, an electrical potential may not be applied to anyelectrodes (e.g., a potential may be applied to neither of firstelectrode 110 and second electrode 120).

In some embodiments, the first electrode 110 may be electricallyisolated. As used herein, an electrode is electrically isolated when itis not in electrical communication with any other conductor, aside fromthe capability of exchanging a tunneling current with another electrode(e.g., second electrode 120). That is, the electrode is topologicallysurrounded by insulators.

In some embodiments, the first electrode 110 may be a mechanicallyfloating electrode. As used herein, a mechanically floating electrode isan electrode that can move as layer 120 deforms. Without wishing to bebound by theory, mechanically floating electrodes may provide certainadvantages, such as allowing for the use of top electrode materials thatmay be challenging to fabricate as non-mechanically floating electrodes,including smooth electrodes and/or electrodes with nanoscale dimensions.In some embodiments, mechanically floating electrodes may be capable ofbeing moved across a distance with a lower input energy than otherwiseequivalent non-floating electrodes. Such electrodes will be described infurther detail below.

As described above, in some embodiments, the layer 130 positionedbetween the first electrode and the second electrode may be a deformablelayer. As used herein, a deformable layer is a layer that is capable ofundergoing a change in size (i.e., a deformation) during normaloperation of the device. The deformation may be reversible, or thedeformation may be non-reversible; that is, in some embodiments it maybe possible for the deformable layer to return to its initial shapeafter deformation while in some embodiments it may not be possible forthe deformable layer to return to its initial shape after deformation.In some embodiments, the layer 130 positioned between the firstelectrode and the second electrode may be a reversibly deformable layer,and may be capable of deforming under the influence of an applied forceand then transforming back to its original shape once the force isremoved. That is, the deformable layer may be capable of undergoingelastic deformation and/or functioning like a spring. Deformation of adeformable layer may comprise compression of the deformable layer suchthat the first electrode and the second electrode are brought closertogether, or may comprise expansion of the deformable layer such thatthe first electrode and the second electrode are brought further apart.In some embodiments, the first layer 110 may float on the deformablelayer, and the deformable layer may be capable of undergoing compressionlike a spring.

In some embodiments, the layer positioned between the first electrode110 and the second electrode 120 may be a deformable layer, and it maybe possible to change the distance between the first electrode and thesecond electrode by applying a force to the first electrode, the secondelectrode, or both. FIG. 2 shows a schematic depiction of this process,showing the application of a force to device 100 such that layer 130compressibly deforms so that top electrode 110 is brought closer tobottom electrode 120. In some, but not necessarily all, embodiments,device 100 may return to the configuration shown in FIG. 1 after removalof the force.

In some embodiments, changing the distance between the first electrode110 and the second electrode 120 may be particularly advantageous. Forexample, the device may not be capable of supporting a tunneling currentat a relatively large distance between the first electrode 110 and thesecond electrode 120 but may be capable of supporting a tunnelingcurrent at a sufficiently small distance between the first electrode 110and the second electrode 120. Changing the distance between the firstelectrode 110 and the second electrode 120 may thus allow for tunnelingbetween the first electrode 110 and the second electrode 120 to beswitched on and off. Further examples of electromechanical switches aredisclosed in International Patent Application No. PCT/US2014/013403,filed Jan. 28, 2014 and entitled “Electromechanical Device”, hereinincorporated by reference in its entirety for all purposes, are alsocontemplated.

In some embodiments, when placed in a closed switch position, thecurrent that flows between the first electrode 110 and the secondelectrode 120 is greater than 10⁻⁸ A, greater than 10⁻⁷ A, greater than10⁻⁶ A, greater than 10⁻⁵ A, greater than 10⁴ A, greater than 10⁻³ A,greater than 10⁻² A, greater than 10⁻¹ A, greater than 1.0 A, between10⁻⁸ A and 1.0 A, between 10⁻⁷ 10 A and 10⁻¹ A, between 10⁻⁶ A and 10⁻²A, or between 10⁻⁵ A and 10⁻³ A. The current (e.g., tunneling) thatflows between the first electrode 110 and the second electrode 120 whenthe device is placed in a closed switch position may fall within rangesdefined by any of the end points listed above, or may fall outside ofthe above-noted ranges.

Conversely, when the device is in an open switch position with theelectrodes farther apart, the direct tunneling current that flowsbetween the first electrode 110 and the second electrode 120 isnegligible. In some embodiments, when placed in an open switch position,the current that flows between the first electrode 110 and the secondelectrode 120 is less than 10⁻⁶ A, less than 10⁻⁷ A, less than 10⁻⁸ A,less than 10⁻⁹ A, less than 10⁻¹⁰ A, less than 10⁻¹¹ A, less than 10⁻¹²A, less than 10⁻¹³ A, between 10⁻⁶ A and 10⁻¹³ A, between 10⁻⁷ A and10⁻¹² A, between 10⁻⁸ A and 10⁻¹¹ A, or between 10⁻⁹ A and 10⁻¹⁰ A. Thecurrent that flows between first electrode 110 and the second electrode120 when the device is placed in an open switch position may fall withinranges defined by any of the end points listed above, or may falloutside of the above-noted ranges.

In certain embodiments, the ratio of the tunneling current that flowsbetween the first electrode 110 and the second electrode 120 when theswitch is closed to the tunneling current that flows between the firstelectrode 110 and the second electrode 120 when the device is open isrelatively high. In some embodiments, the ratio of the tunneling currentthat flows between the first electrode 110 and the second electrode 120when the switch is closed to the tunneling current that flows betweenthe first electrode and the second electrode when the device is open isgreater than or equal to 10³ A, greater than or equal to 10⁴ A, greaterthan or equal to 10⁵ A, greater than or equal to 10⁶ A, or greater thanor equal to 10⁷ A. In some embodiments, the ratio of the tunnelingcurrent that flows between the first electrode 110 and the secondelectrode 120 when the switch is closed to the tunneling current thatflows between the first electrode 110 and the second electrode 120 whenthe device is open is less than or equal to 10⁸, less than or equal to10⁷ A, less than or equal to 10⁶ A, less than or equal to 10⁵ A, or lessthan or equal to 10⁴. Combinations of the above-referenced ranges arealso possible (e.g., greater than or equal to 10⁴ A and less than orequal to 10⁸ A). Other ranges are also possible.

In some embodiments, changing the distance between the first electrode110 and the second electrode 120 (e.g., through deformation of adeformable layer positioned therebetween) may cause a change in theplasmon resonance wavelength. For instance, the device may have a firstplasmon resonance wavelength at a first distance between the firstelectrode and the second electrode and a second plasmon resonancewavelength at a second distance between the first electrode 110 and thesecond electrode 120. In some embodiments, it may be advantageous tomodify the plasmon resonance wavelength as desired, or to shift it fromthe first wavelength to the second wavelength and/or back from thesecond wavelength to the first wavelength. For instance, it may bebeneficial to change the plasmon resonance wavelength from a non-visiblewavelength to a visible wavelength or from a first visible wavelength toa second visible wavelength for display applications. As anotherexample, it may be beneficial to change the plasmon resonance from awavelength that is not of interest to a wavelength that is of interest(e.g., changing the wavelength from one which would not trigger anoptical sensor to one which would trigger the optical sensor).

In some embodiments, the plasmon resonance wavelength of a device may bedependent on the material or materials used to form the devicecomponents, the indices of refraction of the device components, and thethickness of the layer 130.

In some embodiments, the first plasmon resonance wavelength (or theplasmon wavelength prior to deformation of the deformable layer) may begreater than or equal to 500 nm, greater than or equal to 550 nm,greater than or equal to 600 nm, greater than or equal to 650 nm,greater than or equal to 700 nm, greater than or equal to 750 nm,greater than or equal to 800 nm, greater than or equal to 850 nm,greater than or equal to 900 nm, greater than or equal to 1000 nm,greater than or equal to 1200 nm, greater than or equal to 1300 nm,greater than or equal to 1400 nm, or greater than or equal to 1500 nm.In some embodiments, the first plasmon resonance wavelength may be lessthan or equal to 1600 nm, less than or equal to 1500 nm, less than orequal to 1400 nm, less than or equal to 1300 nm, less than or equal to1200 nm, less than or equal to 1000 nm, less than or equal to 900 nm,less than or equal to 850 nm, less than or equal to 800 nm, less than orequal to 750 nm, less than or equal to 700 nm, less than or equal to 650nm, less than or equal to 600 nm, or less than or equal to 550 nm.Combinations of the above-referenced ranges are also possible (e.g.,greater than or equal to 500 nm and less than or equal to 900 nm). Otherranges are also possible.

In some embodiments, the second plasmon resonance wavelength (or theplasmon wavelength after deformation of the deformable layer) may begreater than or equal to 500 nm, greater than or equal to 550 nm,greater than or equal to 600 nm, greater than or equal to 650 nm,greater than or equal to 700 nm, greater than or equal to 750 nm,greater than or equal to 800 nm, greater than or equal to 850 nm,greater than or equal to 900 nm, greater than or equal to 1000 nm,greater than or equal to 1200 nm, greater than or equal to 1300 nm,greater than or equal to 1400 nm, or greater than or equal to 1500 nm.In some embodiments, the second plasmon resonance wavelength may be lessthan or equal to 1600 nm, less than or equal to 1500 nm, less than orequal to 1400 nm, less than or equal to 1300 nm, less than or equal to1200 nm, less than or equal to 1000 nm, less than or equal to 900 nm,less than or equal to 850 nm, less than or equal to 800 nm, less than orequal to 750 nm, less than or equal to 700 nm, less than or equal to 650nm, less than or equal to 600 nm, or less than or equal to 550 nm.Combinations of the above-referenced ranges are also possible (e.g.,greater than or equal to 500 nm and less than or equal to 900 nm). Otherranges are also possible.

A force may be applied to either or both of the first electrode 110 andthe second electrode 120 by any suitable means, non-limiting examples ofwhich include externally-applied mechanical pressure (e.g., by use of aclamp, lever, pressure applicator, manual compression, pressure from asurrounding fluid or gas, and the like), and/or by mechanical pressureapplied by the one or more device components upon response to a stimulus(e.g., a stimulus such as electric field, light, heat, magnetic field,chemical environment, biological reaction, and the like).

In some embodiments, it may be possible to apply a force to the firstelectrode 110 by applying a voltage to the second electrode 120. Withoutwishing to be bound by theory, applying a voltage to the secondelectrode 120 may induce a charge of opposite sign on the surface of thefirst electrode 110. This may cause the first electrode 110 to beattracted to the second electrode 120 by electrostatic attraction. Theelectrostatic attraction between the first electrode 110 and the secondelectrode 120 may cause a compressive force to be exerted on thedeformable layer 130, and may cause it to deform such that the firstelectrode 110 is moved closer to the second electrode 120. Applying avoltage to the second electrode 120 without applying a voltage to thefirst electrode 110 may be preferred in some embodiments, such as whenthe first electrode 110 is electrically isolated. In some embodiments,applying a voltage to the first electrode 110, the second electrode 120,or both causes tunneling to flow between the first electrode 110 and thesecond electrode 120.

Any suitable voltage or charge may be applied to the second electrode120 (i.e., the bottom electrode) to generate a voltage differencebetween the first electrode 110 and the second electrode 120. Thevoltage may be positive or negative. In some embodiments, a voltagedifference between the first electrode 110 and the second electrode 120may be sufficient to cause deformation of the deformable layer 130. Insome embodiments, the voltage difference sufficient to cause deformationof the deformable layer 130 may be less than 1.0 V, less than 0.8 V,less than 0.5 V, less than 0.3 V, less than 100 mV, between 0.1 V and1.0 V, between 0.1 V and 0.5 V, between 0.1 V and 0.3 V, etc. Thesevoltage differences that result in suitable deformation may beappropriate for CMOS applications. Though, devices in accordance withthe present disclosure may be suitable for use in other applications. Insome embodiments, the magnitude of the voltage adequate to causedeformation of the deformable layer 130 is less than 15.0 V, less than12.0 V, less than 10.0 V, less than 8.0 V, less than 6.0 V, less than4.0 V, less than 2.0 V, less than 1.0 V, less than 100 mV, between 0.1 Vand 10.0 V, between 0.5 V and 5.0 V, between 1.0 V and 5.0 V, or between5.0 V and 10.0 V. It can be appreciated that a voltage differenceappropriate to cause deformation of the deformable layer 130 may fallwithin ranges defined by any of the end points listed above, or may falloutside of the above-noted ranges.

In some embodiments, it may be possible to apply a force to the firstelectrode 110 by causing one or more molecules in the layer positionedbetween the first electrode and the second electrode 130 to undergo anelectrically-induced conformational change. For example, charges may beinserted or extracted from the layer, and/or the layer may undergo apiezoelectric response to an applied voltage.

In some embodiments, it may be possible to apply a magnetic force to thefirst electrode 110. For instance, both first electrode 110 and secondelectrode 120 may comprise one or more magnetic components. If amagnetic field is induced electromagnetically or by the use of anexternal source, the first electrode 110 and the second electrode 120may be attracted to each other.

In some embodiments, the application of temperature may cause a force tobe applied to the first electrode 110. A change in temperature may causea conformational change in one or more molecules positioned in layer130, or it may drive an expansion or compression of layer 130 if thereis a thermal expansion coefficient mismatch between layer 130 and eitherfirst electrode 110 or second electrode 120.

In some embodiments, the application of light may cause a force to beapplied to the first electrode 110. Exposure of layer 130 to light maydirectly cause a conformational change of at least some of the moleculesin the layer, or may indirectly cause a conformational change of atleast some of the molecules in the layer by changing the temperature ofthe layer. In some embodiments, optical forces exerted by light may besufficient to cause deformation of layer 130.

In some embodiments, it may be possible to apply a force to the firstelectrode 110 by applying a chemical stimulus or a biological stimulusto layer 130 that results in a conformational change of at least some ofthe molecules in layer 130.

In some embodiments, applying a force to the first electrode 110, thesecond electrode 120, or both may result in a relatively low amount ofdeformation of the deformable layer 130. This may result in a relativelysmall change in distance between the first electrode 110 and the secondelectrode 120. In some embodiments, it may be possible to change thedistance between the first electrode 110 and the second electrode 120 bya distance of less than or equal to 90% of the initial thickness oflayer 130, less than or equal to 80% of the initial thickness of layer130, less than or equal to 70% of the initial thickness of layer 130,less than or equal to 60% of the initial thickness of layer 130, lessthan or equal to 50% of the initial thickness of layer 130, less than orequal to 40% of the initial thickness of layer 130, less than or equalto 30% of the initial thickness of layer 130, less than or equal to 20%of the initial thickness of layer 130, less than or equal to 10% of theinitial thickness of layer 130, or less than or equal to 5% of theinitial thickness of layer 130. In some embodiments, it may be possibleto change the distance between the first electrode 110 and the secondelectrode 120 by a distance of greater than or equal to 2.5% of theinitial thickness of layer 130, greater than or equal to 5% of theinitial thickness of layer 130, greater than or equal to 10% of theinitial thickness of layer 130, greater than or equal to 20% of theinitial thickness of layer 130, greater than or equal to 30% of theinitial thickness of layer 130, greater than or equal to 40% of theinitial thickness of layer 130, greater than or equal to 50% of theinitial thickness of layer 130, greater than or equal to 60% of theinitial thickness of layer 130, greater than or equal to 70% of theinitial thickness of layer 130, or greater than or equal to 80% of theinitial thickness of layer 130. Combinations of the above-referencedranges are also possible (e.g., greater than or equal to 2.5% of theinitial thickness of layer 130 and less than or equal to 90% of theinitial thickness of layer 130). Other ranges are also possible.

The first electrode 110 may be spaced at any distance from the secondelectrode 120 prior to applying a force to the first electrode 110, thesecond electrode 120, or both. In some embodiments, the distance betweenthe first electrode 110 and the second electrode 120 prior to applying aforce to the first electrode 110, the second electrode 120, or both maybe greater than or equal to 3.0 nm, greater than or equal to 3.5 nm,greater than or equal to 4.0 nm, greater than or equal to 4.5 nm,greater than or equal to 5.0 nm, greater than or equal to 6.0 nm,greater than or equal to 7.0 nm, greater than or equal to 8.0 nm,greater than or equal to 9.0 nm, greater than or equal to 10.0 nm,greater than or equal to 20.0 nm, greater than or equal to 30.0 nm,greater than or equal to 40.0 nm, or greater. In some embodiments, thedistance between the first electrode 110 and the second electrode 120prior to applying a force to the first electrode 110, the secondelectrode 120, or both may be less than or equal to 50.0 nm, less thanor equal to 40.0 nm, less than or equal to 30.0 nm, 20.0 nm, less than15.0 nm, less than or equal to 10.0 nm, less than or equal to 9.0 nm,less than or equal to 8.0 nm, less than or equal to 7.0 nm, less than orequal to 6.0 nm, less than or equal to 5.0 nm, or less.

The first electrode 110 may be spaced at any distance from the secondelectrode 120 as a force is being applied to the first electrode 110,the second electrode 120, or both. In some embodiments, the distancebetween the first electrode 110 and the second electrode 120 as a forceis being applied to the first electrode 110, the second electrode 120,or both may be less than or equal to 50.0 nm, less than or equal to 40.0nm, less than or equal to 30.0 nm, less than or equal to 20.0 nm, lessthan or equal to 10.0 nm, less than or equal to 9.0 nm, less than orequal to 8.0 nm, less than or equal to 7.0 nm, less than or equal to 6.0nm, less than or equal to 5.0 nm, less than or equal to 4.0 nm, lessthan or equal to 3.5 nm, less than or equal to 3.0 nm, less than orequal to 2.5 nm, less than or equal to 2.0 nm, less than or equal to 1.5nm, less than or equal to 1.0 nm, less than or equal to 0.5 nm, or less.In some embodiments, the distance between the first electrode 110 andthe second electrode 120 as a force is being applied to the firstelectrode 110, the second electrode 120, or both may be greater than orequal to 1.0 nm, greater than or equal to 2.0 nm, greater than or equalto 2.5 nm, greater than or equal to 3.0 nm, greater than or equal to 3.5nm, greater than or equal to 4.0 nm, greater than or equal to 5.0 nm,greater than or equal to 6.0 nm, greater than or equal to 7.0 nm,greater than or equal to 8.0 nm, greater than or equal to 9.0 nm,greater than or equal to 10.0 nm, greater than or equal to 20.0 nm,greater than or equal to 30.0 nm, greater than or equal to 40.0 nm, orgreater.

In some embodiments, the deformable layer 130 may comprise a conductivelayer positioned within the bulk of the layer 130 positioned between thefirst electrode and the second electrode. FIG. 3 illustrates one suchembodiment, where layer 130 comprises conducive layer 140. Theconductive layer 140 may comprise a film that is conductive (e.g., ametal film), or it may comprise a region of the layer positioned betweenthe first electrode 110 and the second electrode 120 that is conductive(e.g., the layer positioned between the first electrode 110 and thesecond electrode 120 may comprise molecules with a conductive region,and the conductive regions may positioned with respect to each othersuch that a conductive layer is formed). In such embodiments, thedistance between the first electrode 110 and the second electrode 120prior to applying a force to the first electrode 110, the secondelectrode 120, or both and/or while applying a force to the firstelectrode 110, the second electrode 120, or both may be a multiple ofone of the numbers above. That is, the numbers above should be taken torefer to distances between conductive layers in addition to distancesbetween electrodes. Without wishing to be bound by theory, the presenceof a conductive layer within the deformable layer 130 may allow fortunneling between the first electrode 110 and the second electrode 120through the conductive layer 140. In other words, tunneling currents maybe established between both the first electrode 110 and the conductivelayer 140 and between the conductive layer 140 and the second electrode120 simultaneously. This may allow for the first electrode 110 and thesecond electrode 120 to be spaced farther apart while still allowing fortunneling.

In some embodiments, the deformable layer 130 may be capable ofundergoing a desirable amount of deformation while being subject to arelatively low amount of pressure. In some such embodiments, thedeformable layer 130 may have a relatively low Young's modulus. In someembodiments, the deformable layer 130 may have a Young's modulus of lessthan 15.0 MPa, less than 10.0 MPa, less than 9.0 MPa, less than 8.0 MPa,less than 7.0 MPa, less than 6.5 MPa, less than 6.0 MPa, less than 5.5MPa, less than 5.0 MPa, less than 4.0 MPa, less than 3.0 MPa, less than2.0 MPa, less than 1.0 MPa, etc. For example, the deformable layer mayhave a Young's modulus of between 1.0 MPa and 6.5 MPa, between 2.0 MPaand 6.0 MPa, between 1.0 MPa and 3.0 MPa, between 3.0 MPa and 5.0 MPa,between 5.0 MPa and 10.0 MPa or other ranges between end values providedherein. In certain embodiments, the deformable layer 130 may have arelatively higher Young's modulus. In some embodiments, the deformablelayer 130 may have a Young's modulus of less than 150.0 MPa, less than120.0 MPa, less than 100.0 MPa, less than 90.0 MPa, less than 80.0 MPa,less than 70.0 MPa, less than 60.0 MPa, less than 50.0 MPa, less than40.0 MPa, less than 30.0 MPa, less than 20.0 MPa, less than 10.0 MPa,etc. For example, the deformable layer 130 may have a Young's modulus ofbetween 1.0 MPa and 100.0 MPa, between 5.0 MPa and 50.0 MPa, between10.0 MPa and 20.0 MPa, or other ranges between end values providedherein. It can be appreciated that the deformable layer 130 may exhibita Young's modulus that falls outside of the above-noted ranges. Thestiffness of the deformable layer 130 may be measured by methods knownin the art, for example, by current-voltage extrapolation,interferometry measurements, atomic force microscopy, or other suitabletechniques. In some embodiments, deformable layer 130 may have linearmechanical properties, or may behave like a spring (i.e., the Young'smodulus may be considered to be analogous to spring constant of thelayer). In other embodiments, deformable layer 130 may have non-linearmechanical properties. That is, the Young's modulus may not be constantduring compression and expansion of deformable layer 130.

In certain embodiments, the first electrode 110 may have one or morebeneficial material properties, such as a very low level of surfaceroughness. Without wishing to be bound by theory, it is believed thatlow levels of surface roughness may be advantageous for one or moreregions. For instance, low levels of surface roughness may enable thedistance between the first electrode 110 and the second electrode 120 tobe relatively constant across the surface of the first electrode, whichmay result in more uniform electrical and/or optical properties. In someembodiments, low levels of surface roughness of the first electrode 110may be achieved by employing a single crystalline material for the firstelectrode. In certain embodiments, the first electrode may comprise asingle crystalline material with a crystal facet oriented parallel tosurface 122. The crystal facet may be atomically smooth; that is, it maybe a crystal plane with minimal or no defects. In some embodiments, thefirst electrode 110 may have a surface roughness of less than or equalto 1 nm, less than or equal to 0.9 nm, less than or equal to 0.8 nm,less than or equal to 0.7 nm, less than or equal to 0.6 nm, less than orequal to 0.5 nm, less than or equal to 0.4 nm, less than or equal to 0.3nm, or less than or equal to 0.2 nm. In some embodiments, the firstelectrode 110 may have a surface roughness of greater than or equal to0.1 nm, greater than or equal to 0.2 nm, greater than or equal to 0.3nm, greater than or equal to 0.4 nm, greater than or equal to 0.5 nm,greater than or equal to 0.6 nm, greater than or equal to 0.7 nm,greater than or equal to 0.8 nm, or greater than or equal to 0.9 nm.Combinations of the above-referenced ranges are also possible (e.g.,greater than or equal to 0.1 nm and less than or equal to 0.5 nm). Otherranges are also possible. In certain embodiments, the surface roughnessmay be less than or equal to half of the distance between the firstelectrode 110 and the second electrode 120. The surface roughness of thefirst electrode may be determined by atomic force microscopy.

The first electrode 110 may comprise any suitable material. In someembodiments, the first electrode 110 may comprise a two-dimensionalmaterial or a stack of two dimensional materials. As used herein, atwo-dimensional material is a material that extends macroscopically intwo dimensions but has sub-nanometer scale dimensions in a thirddimension. One non-limiting example of a two-dimensional material isgraphene.

In some embodiments, the first electrode 110 may comprise ananomaterial. As used herein, a nanomaterial is a material that has atleast one side length or diameter that is less than 200 nm. Non-limitingexamples of nanomaterials include nanocubes (nanomaterials which have acubic shape) and nanoplates (nanomaterials that are significantlythinner in one dimension than in the other two). In some embodiments,the first electrode 110 may comprise a nanocube and the nanocube sidelength may be greater than or equal to 50 nm, greater than or equal to75 nm, greater than or equal to 100 nm, greater than or equal to 125 nm,greater than or equal to 150 nm, or greater than or equal to 175 nm. Insome embodiments, the first electrode 110 may comprise a nanocube andthe nanocube side length may be less than or equal to 200 nm, less thanor equal to 175 nm, less than or equal to 150 nm, less than or equal to125 nm, less than or equal to 100 nm, or less than or equal to 75 nm.Combinations of the above-referenced ranges are also possible (e.g.,greater than or equal to 50 nm and less than or equal to 200 nm). Otherranges are also possible. The nanocube side length may be determined bymeasurement using scanning electron microscopy, transmission electronmicroscopy, atomic force microscopy and/or optical interferometry.

In some embodiments, the first electrode 120 may comprise a metal, asemiconductor, or a semimetal. In certain embodiments, the firstelectrode 110 may comprise a transition metal. In some embodiments, thefirst electrode may comprise gold. In some embodiments, it may bepreferred for the first electrode 110 to comprise a gold nanocube.

In certain embodiments, the second electrode 120 may have one or morebeneficial materials properties, such as a very low level of surfaceroughness. In some embodiments, low levels of surface roughness of thesecond electrode 120 may be achieved by employing a single crystallinematerial for the second electrode 120. In certain embodiments, thesecond electrode 120 may comprise a single crystalline material with acrystal facet oriented parallel to surface 112. The crystal facet may beatomically smooth; that is, it may be a crystal plane with minimal or nodefects. In some embodiments, the second electrode 120 may have asurface roughness of less than or equal to 1 nm, less than or equal to0.9 nm, less than or equal to 0.8 nm, less than or equal to 0.7 nm, lessthan or equal to 0.6 nm, less than or equal to 0.5 nm, less than orequal to 0.4 nm, less than or equal to 0.3 nm, or less than or equal to0.2 nm. In some embodiments, the second electrode 120 may have a surfaceroughness of greater than or equal to 0.1 nm, greater than or equal to0.2 nm, greater than or equal to 0.3 nm, greater than or equal to 0.4nm, greater than or equal to 0.5 nm, greater than or equal to 0.6 nm,greater than or equal to 0.7 nm, greater than or equal to 0.8 nm, orgreater than or equal to 0.9 nm. Combinations of the above-referencedranges are also possible (e.g., greater than or equal to 0.1 nm and lessthan or equal to 0.5 nm). Other ranges are also possible. The surfaceroughness of the second electrode may be determined by atomic forcemicroscopy.

The second electrode 120 may comprise any suitable material. In someembodiments, the second electrode 120 may comprise a two-dimensionalmaterial or a stack of two dimensional materials. In some embodiments,the second electrode 120 may comprise graphene. In certain embodiments,it may be preferable for both the first electrode 110 and the secondelectrode 120 to comprise graphene.

In some embodiments, the second electrode 120 may comprise ananomaterial, such as a nanocube or a nanoplate. In certain embodiments,it may be preferable for the first electrode 110 to comprise a nanocubeand the second electrode 120 to comprise a nanoplate.

In some embodiments, the second electrode 120 may comprise a metal, asemiconductor, or a semimetal. In certain embodiments, the secondelectrode 120 may comprise a transition metal. In some embodiments, thesecond electrode 120 may comprise gold. In some embodiments, the secondelectrode 120 may comprise a gold nanoplate.

The layer 130 positioned between the first electrode 110 and the secondelectrode 120 may have any suitable composition. In some embodiments,the layer 130 positioned between the first electrode 110 and the secondelectrode 120 may be an insulator. In some embodiments, the layer 130positioned between the first electrode 110 and the second electrode 120may comprise both conductive and insulating molecules, or bothconductive nanomaterials and insulating molecules. The insulatingmolecules may be mixed with the conductive molecules and/or with theconductive nanomaterials, or the conductive molecules and/ornanomaterials may take the form of a conductive layer or layersdispersed within an insulating layer.

In some embodiments, the layer 130 positioned between the firstelectrode 110 and the second electrode 120 may comprise one or moremolecules that are responsive to a stimuli such as electrical stimuli,optical stimuli, chemical stimuli, and/or thermal stimuli.

In some embodiments, the layer 130 positioned between the firstelectrode 110 and the second electrode 120 may comprise one or moreorganic molecules. FIGS. 4-7 provide examples of suitable materials forthe layer 130 positioned between the first electrode 110 and the secondelectrode 120, or organic thin film molecules, that may be incorporatedin electromechanical devices described herein. In some embodiments, thelayer 130 positioned between the first electrode 110 and the secondelectrode 120 may include molecules that form a self-assembled monolayer(SAM). In some embodiments, the molecules may include one or morefunctional groups that are capable of forming bonds with either or bothof electrode 110 and electrode 120. Non-limiting examples of such groupsinclude thiol groups, which may form covalent bonds with gold electrodesvia gold-sulfur bonds. In some embodiments, the SAM may be comprise atleast one of polyethylene glycol thiol, polyethylene glycol dithiol, andfluorinated alkanethiol. In some embodiments, at least a portion of themolecules forming the SAM may include at least two functional groups, sothat they may be capable of forming bonds with both electrodes.

In some embodiments, molecules making up the layer 130 positionedbetween the first electrode 110 and the second electrode 120 (e.g.,self-assembled monolayers) may have a length of at least 1 nm, at least2 nm, at least 3 nm, at least 4 nm, at least 5 nm, at least 7 nm, atleast 10 nm, or other suitable length. Or, the molecules may have alength of less than 25 nm, less than 20 nm, less than 15 nm, less than10 nm, or less than 5 nm, etc. The molecules of the layer 130 positionedbetween the first electrode 110 and the second electrode 120 may have alength that falls within ranges defined by any of the end pointsdescribed above, or may fall outside of the above noted ranges.

As noted herein, the density of the molecules in a self-assembledmonolayer may also be appropriately tailored. For example, aself-assembled monolayer may have a relatively low packing density,allowing the organic layer to exhibit a suitably low stiffness. In someembodiments, the packing density of a self-assembled monolayer for anelastically deformable material may be between 20% and 80%, between 30%and 70%, between 40% and 60% (e.g., approximately 50%), etc., orsuitable for the layer 130 positioned between the first electrode 110and the second electrode 120 to compress in an appropriate manner. Itcan be appreciated that such molecules may also have functional groupsthat will affect their overall stiffness. For instance, in some cases,fluorinated alkane thiol molecules may be employed, resulting inrelatively straight molecular chains due to mutual repulsion of fluorineatoms from one another. Such self-assembled monolayers may be formedusing a mixture of fluorinated thiols and semifluorinated thiols, suchas those shown in FIGS. 5-6.

Approaches in accordance with the present disclosure may give rise to aself-assembled monolayer that has a relatively dense collection offluorine atoms on one side with a sparsely packed alkyl self-assembledmonolayer located on an opposite side. The densely packed fluorousregion may be relatively rigid, stabilizing the self-assembled monolayerso as to promote self-assembly. The sparse alkyl portion, on the otherhand, may allow for compression of the overall layer by, for example,increasing the void space. As alkyl and perfluoroalkyl molecules exhibitgenerally unfavorable intermolecular forces (repulsive) with respect toone another, the open switch position of the device will bethermodynamically favored. In other words, when the device is actuatedto a closed switch position, where alkyl and perfluoroalkyl moleculesare bunched together, the repulsive nature of the molecules promoterecovery, allowing the open switch position to be restored upon removalof the actuation voltage/force.

In some embodiments, the layer 130 positioned between the firstelectrode 110 and the second electrode 120 may include an evaporated orspin-coated organic layer, such as triptycene, dibenzocyclooctatetraene,or any other suitable molecule. Such molecules may exhibit generally 3Dstructures, which may naturally nestle amongst one another as the thinfilm is squeezed or otherwise compressed. These materials may also haveproperties such that the tunneling barrier between electrodes changeswhen the molecule is compressed or that the plasmon resonance of thedevice is changed when the molecule is compressed. For example, thetunneling barrier threshold therethrough may be substantially loweredupon compression of the molecule(s). In such cases, despite thepossibility for the molecule(s) of the layer positioned between thefirst electrode 110 and the second electrode 120 to be relatively stiff,the molecule(s) may undergo a conformational change upon compression,resulting in a substantial tunneling current to arise betweenelectrodes. As another example, the compression of the molecules willresult in a reduction in distance between first electrode 110 and secondelectrode 120, which will change the coupling between the surfaceplasmon resonances of these electrodes and thus change the plasmonresonance of the device.

Dibenzocyclooctatetraene (dibenzoCOT), shown in FIGS. 5 and 7, is asmall-molecule, which takes on an arched, tub-like shape in its groundstate so as to avoid an unfavorable anti-aromatic thermodynamic state.However, dibenzoCOT can be forced to a substantially flattenedanti-aromatic state as shown in FIG. 7. This results in a conformationalchange in structure where a significant restoring force is generated dueto the chemical instability of the anti-aromatic system.

As described above, when the electrodes are brought closer together, thetunneling length therebetween decreases. When the elastically deformablelayer includes dibenzoCOT, the tunneling barrier may be furtherdecreased, as dibenzoCOT, in a compressed flat state, may allow for theoverlap of delocalized cyclic pi-systems. That is, the compresseddibenzoCOT may allow for a greater amount of current therethrough thanwhen in the arched tub-like shape. Accordingly, when compressed, thepresence of dibenzoCOT may increase the total current between electrodesas they are brought closer together.

Among other small organic molecules that may be used to developelectromechanical devices in accordance with the present disclosure aretris-(8-hydroxyquinoline)aluminum (alq3), triptycene and triptycenederivatives. The chemical structures of these molecules may give rise toa tendency for the molecules to form thin-films having a relatively lowpacking density. When such molecules exhibit a low packing density, theformed layer may possess a relatively low stiffness, allowing for lowvoltage actuation of the device from open to closed switch positions.

The layer 130 positioned between the first electrode 110 and the secondelectrode 120 may include any other suitable composition. In variousembodiments, the elastically deformable material may include dendrimers(e.g., repetitively branched molecules often substantially symmetricaround a core), star polymers, biopolymers (e.g., collagen,carbohydrates, peptides, etc.), hydrogen-bonded matrices, organicnanoparticles, modified carbon nanotubes, redox-sensitive polymers, orother appropriate material.

It should be understood that the layer 130 positioned between the firstelectrode 110 and the second electrode 120 is not limited to thecompositions discussed herein, as the use of other suitable compositionsare within the scope of the present disclosure.

In some embodiments, the layer positioned between the first electrode110 and the second electrode 120 is bonded to one or both of the firstelectrode 110 and the second electrode 120. The layer 130 positionedbetween the first electrode 110 and the second electrode 120 may bebonded to an electrode by any suitable means, such as by a non-covalentinteraction, by a covalent interaction, by a hydrophobic-hydrophilicinteraction, and by electrostatic attraction. In some embodiments, layer130 positioned between the first electrode 110 and the second electrode120 is bonded to an electrode by one or more of anadamantane-cyclodextrin interaction and a gold-thiol interaction.

In some embodiments, the device may further comprise a third electrode,a fourth electrode, or more electrodes. It should be understood that anyof the properties described above in relation to two electrode devicesmay also be present for devices comprising three, four, or moreelectrodes. For example, the device may function as an electromechanicalswitch, tunneling may be selectively turned off and on by modulating thedistance between the first electrode and the second and thirdelectrodes, and/or the plasmon resonance may be tuned by modulating thedistance between the first electrode and the second and thirdelectrodes.

In certain embodiments, the device comprises a third electrode (or afourth electrode) and the third electrode (or fourth electrode) ispositioned on a side of the layer positioned between the first electrodeand the second electrode opposite the first electrode (e.g., a side ofthe deformable layer opposite the first electrode). In some embodiments,the first electrode bridges the second electrode and the thirdelectrode. FIG. 8 shows one non-limiting example of a device, wheredevice 800 comprises first layer 810, second electrode 820, thirdelectrode 825, and layer 830. Although FIG. 8 shows layer 830 as beingpresent in the regions of space directly between first electrode 810 andsecond electrode 820 and between first electrode 810 and third electrode825 but not in any other region of space, other configurations of thelayer and the electrode are also possible (e.g., any portion or noportion of the region of space between first electrode 810 and secondelectrode 820, any portion or no portion of the region of space betweenfirst electrode 810 and second electrode 825, and/or any portion or noportion of the region of space not directly between any electrodes). Insome embodiments, it may be preferable for the first electrode 810 to beboth mechanically floating and electrically isolated.

In some embodiments, the device may comprise a third electrode 825 andmay be a two terminal device. That is, the device may comprise twopoints at which electrical contact can be made. In some embodiments, thetwo terminals are the second electrode 820 and the third electrode 825.In some such embodiments, the second electrode 820 may be the source andthe third electrode 825 may be the drain. A voltage difference may beestablished between the second electrode 820 and the third electrode 825that causes a tunneling current to flow from the second electrode 820 tothe first electrode 810, and from the first electrode 810 to the thirdelectrode 825.

In some embodiments, the device may comprise three electrodes and may bea three terminal device. One example of a three terminal device is adevice that can be operated in a similar manner to a MOSFET, as shownillustratively in FIG. 9. Without wishing to be bound by theory, aMOSFET device is a device comprising a source, a drain, and a gate. Thegate may control the level of current that flows between the source andthe drain. As shown in FIG. 9, a MOSFET may comprise first electrode810, second electrode 820, third electrode 825, and gate 850. Applying acharge to the gate 850 produces an image charge in electrode 810 thatproduces an electrostatic force that pulls electrode 810 closer to thesource electrode 820 and the drain electrode 825. When the distance issmall enough, a tunneling current flows between the source electrode 820and the electrode 810 and between the electrode 810 and the drainelectrode 825.

In some embodiments, the MOSFET may be a split drain device. Forexample, the first electrode may be the source electrode and the secondand third electrodes may be the drain electrodes. In some embodiments,the device is a MOSFET device with a split gate. One non-limitingexample of such a device is shown in FIG. 10, where device 801 comprisesfirst electrode 810, second electrode 820, third electrode and splitgate 855. Other MOSFETs are also contemplated, as are other threeterminal devices.

It should also be noted that three terminal devices may also be designedthat do not require a tunneling current to be formed during operation inorder for the desired properties to be present. For example, threeterminal devices with tunable plasmonic properties are alsocontemplated. Such a device may comprise a first electrode 810 that iscapable of being translated with respect to second electrode 820 andthird electrode 825 to various positions with various different plasmonresonances. The plasmon resonances may be present in the absence of atunneling current between any of the electrodes.

In certain embodiments, the third electrode 825 may have one or morebeneficial materials properties, such as a very low level of surfaceroughness. In some embodiments, low levels of surface roughness of thethird electrode 825 may be achieved by employing a single crystallinematerial for the third electrode 825. In certain embodiments, the thirdelectrode 825 may comprise a single crystalline material with a crystalfacet oriented parallel to surface 812. The crystal facet may beatomically smooth; that is, it may be a crystal plane with minimal or nodefects. In some embodiments, the third electrode 825 may have a surfaceroughness of less than or equal to 1 nm, less than or equal to 0.9 nm,less than or equal to 0.8 nm, less than or equal to 0.7 nm, less than orequal to 0.6 nm, less than or equal to 0.5 nm, less than or equal to 0.4nm, less than or equal to 0.3 nm, or less than or equal to 0.2 nm. Insome embodiments, the third electrode 825 may have a surface roughnessof greater than or equal to 0.1 nm, greater than or equal to 0.2 nm,greater than or equal to 0.3 nm, greater than or equal to 0.4 nm,greater than or equal to 0.5 nm, greater than or equal to 0.6 nm,greater than or equal to 0.7 nm, greater than or equal to 0.8 nm, orgreater than or equal to 0.9 nm. Combinations of the above-referencedranges are also possible (e.g., greater than or equal to 0.1 nm and lessthan or equal to 0.5 nm). Other ranges are also possible. The surfaceroughness of the second electrode may be determined by atomic forcemicroscopy.

The third electrode 825 may comprise any suitable material. In someembodiments, the third electrode 825 may comprise a two-dimensionalmaterial or a stack of two dimensional materials. In some embodiments,the third electrode 825 may comprise graphene. In certain embodiments,it may be preferable for each of the first electrode 810, the secondelectrode 820, and the third electrode 825 to comprise graphene.

In some embodiments, the third electrode 825 may comprise ananomaterial, such as a nanocube or a nanoplate. In certain embodiments,it may be preferable for the first electrode 810 to comprise a nanocubeand both the second and third electrodes 820 and 825 to comprisenanoplates.

In some embodiments, the third electrode 825 may comprise a metal, asemiconductor, or a semimetal. In certain embodiments, the thirdelectrode 825 may comprise a transition metal. In some embodiments, thethird electrode 825 may comprise gold. In some embodiments, the thirdelectrode 825 may comprise a gold nanoplate.

In some embodiments, the third electrode 825 may be positioned at adistance from the second electrode 820 that is advantageous for one ormore applications. For example, in some embodiments the third electrode825 may be positioned sufficiently far from the second electrode 820that tunneling will not occur between the second electrode 820 and thethird electrode 825 (e.g., the distance between the second electrode 820and the third electrode 825 may be greater than the distance between thesecond electrode 820 and the first electrode 810). This may force thetunneling current to flow from the second electrode 820 through thefirst electrode 810 to the third electrode 825. In certain embodiments,the third electrode 825 may be positioned at a distance from the secondelectrode 820 such that the optical properties are enhanced. Forinstance, the distances between the first, second, and third electrodes810, 820, and 825 may be selected so that the plasmon resonance is anappropriate value when the layer 830 positioned between the firstelectrode 810 and the second electrode 820 is undeformed and/or when thelayer 830 positioned between the first electrode 810 and the secondelectrode 820 is deformed. In some embodiments, third electrode 825 ispositioned sufficiently far from second electrode 820 in comparison tothe distance between first electrode 810 and second electrode 820 suchthat the plasmon resonance of the device is dominated by the distancebetween first electrode 810 and second electrode 820. In some otherembodiments, third electrode 825 may be positioned relatively close tosecond electrode 820. In either case, the plasmon resonance will shiftwhen the layer 830 is deformed.

In some embodiments, the distance between the second electrode 820 andthe third electrode 825 in the plane of the second electrode 820 may beless than or equal to 200 nm, less than or equal to 100 nm, less than orequal to 75 nm, less than or equal to 50 nm, less than or equal to 40nm, less than or equal to 30 nm, less than or equal to 20 nm, or lessthan or equal to 10 nm. In some embodiments, the distance between thesecond electrode 820 and the third electrode 825 may be greater than orequal to 5 nm, greater than or equal to 10 nm, greater than or equal to20 nm, greater than or equal to 30 nm, greater than or equal to 40 nm,greater than or equal to 50 nm, greater than or equal to 75 nm, orgreater than or equal to 100 nm. Combinations of the above-referencedranges are also possible (e.g., less than or equal to 100 nm and greaterthan or equal to 5 nm). Other ranges are also possible.

In some embodiments, the distance between the first electrode 810 andthe second electrode 820 may be fairly close to the distance between thefirst electrode 810 and the third electrode 825. In certain embodiments,the distance between the first electrode 810 and the second electrode820 may be within 1% of the distance between the first electrode 810 andthe second electrode 825, within 2% of the distance between the firstelectrode 810 and the second electrode 825, within 5% of the distancebetween the first electrode 810 and the second electrode 825, within 10%of the distance between the first electrode 810 and the second electrode825, or within 20% of the distance between the first electrode 810 andthe second electrode 825.

In certain embodiments, a fourth and or fifth electrode may be present,and the fourth and/or fifth electrode (e.g., electrode 850, electrodes855) may have one or more beneficial materials properties, such as avery low level of surface roughness. In some embodiments, low levels ofsurface roughness of the fourth and/or fifth electrode (e.g., electrode850, electrodes 855) may be achieved by employing a single crystallinematerial for the fourth and/or fifth electrode (e.g., electrode 850,electrodes 855). In certain embodiments, the fourth and/or fifthelectrode (e.g., electrode 850, electrodes 855) may comprise a singlecrystalline material with a crystal facet oriented parallel to surface812. The crystal facet may be atomically smooth; that is, it may be acrystal plane with minimal or no defects. In some embodiments, thefourth and/or fifth electrode (e.g., electrode 850, electrodes 855) mayhave a surface roughness of less than or equal to 1 nm, less than orequal to 0.9 nm, less than or equal to 0.8 nm, less than or equal to 0.7nm, less than or equal to 0.6 nm, less than or equal to 0.5 nm, lessthan or equal to 0.4 nm, less than or equal to 0.3 nm, or less than orequal to 0.2 nm. In some embodiments, the fourth and/or fifth electrode(e.g., electrode 850, electrodes 855) may have a surface roughness ofgreater than or equal to 0.1 nm, greater than or equal to 0.2 nm,greater than or equal to 0.3 nm, greater than or equal to 0.4 nm,greater than or equal to 0.5 nm, greater than or equal to 0.6 nm,greater than or equal to 0.7 nm, greater than or equal to 0.8 nm, orgreater than or equal to 0.9 nm. Combinations of the above-referencedranges are also possible (e.g., greater than or equal to 0.1 nm and lessthan or equal to 0.5 nm). Other ranges are also possible. The surfaceroughness of the fourth and/or fifth electrode (e.g., electrode 850,electrodes 855) may be determined by atomic force microscopy.

In some embodiments, a device may comprise a sixth electrode, a seventhelectrode or more electrodes. If present, these electrodes may also haveany of the values of surface roughness as described above in relation tothe fourth and/or fifth electrodes.

The fourth and/or fifth electrodes (e.g., electrode 850, electrodes855), if present, may comprise any suitable material. In someembodiments, the fourth and/or fifth electrodes (e.g., electrode 850,electrodes 855) may comprise a two-dimensional material or a stack oftwo dimensional materials. In some embodiments, the fourth and/or fifthelectrodes (e.g., electrode 850, electrodes 855) may comprise graphene.

In some embodiments, the fourth and/or fifth electrodes (e.g., electrode850, electrodes 855) may comprise a nanomaterial, such as a nanocube ora nanoplate.

In some embodiments, the fourth and/or fifth electrodes (e.g., electrode850, electrodes 855) may comprise a metal, a semiconductor, or asemimetal. In certain embodiments, the fourth and/or fifth electrodes(e.g., electrode 850, electrodes 855) may comprise a transition metal.In some embodiments, the fourth and/or fifth electrodes (e.g., electrode850, electrodes 855) may comprise gold. In some embodiments, the fourthand/or fifth electrodes (e.g., electrode 850, electrodes 855) maycomprise a gold nanoplate.

In some embodiments, a device may comprise a sixth electrode, a seventhelectrode or more electrodes. If present, these electrodes may alsocomprise any of the same materials as described above for the fourthand/or fifth electrodes.

Devices disclosed herein may be fabricated in any suitable manner. Insome embodiments, one or more device components may be directlydeposited. Deposition methods may include evaporation onto a substrate,dip coating, spin coating, and any other suitable method.

In certain embodiments, one or more device components may be fabricatedby using a self-assembly process and/or a directed assembly process. Forinstance, one or more electrodes may be made to assemble at theinterface between two immiscible fluids. As another example, two or moreelectrodes (e.g., a first electrode 810 and a second electrode 820 or asecond electrode 820 and a third electrode 825) may be functionalizedwith molecules that are capable of bonding with each other. Thefunctionalized electrodes may be exposed to each other such that a bondforms between them. Non-limiting examples of bonds that may be formedinclude bonds formed due to click chemistry such asadamantane-cyclodextrin chemistry, bonds formed due to gold-thiolinteractions, and bonds formed due to electrostatic attraction and othernon-covalent interactions.

In certain embodiments, a template may be employed to assist in devicefabrication. External stimuli such as electric field, magnetic field orlight may also be used in assembly of the device components.

Example 1

Tunneling nanoelectromechanical (NEM) switches based on molecular thinfilms (referred to as squitches) may operate through electromechanicalmodulation of tunneling current through a molecular layer forming theswitching gap. In this approach, an applied electric field across twoelectrodes sandwiching a molecular layer provides sufficient force tocause mechanical compression of the molecules. As the molecules arecompressed, the tunneling gap decreases, causing an exponential increasein the current which turns on the switch. As the voltage is removed, theelastic restoring force of the molecular film helps overcome surfaceadhesive forces to move the top contact to the original OFF-stateposition. Such a device can be fabricated by utilizingmetal-molecule-graphene tunneling junctions. The graphene provides alocally atomically smooth surface which helps form a well-definedswitching gap. The graphene can be grown through a chemical vapordeposition technique and transferred onto the molecular layer. However,other techniques for graphene preparation such as mechanical or chemicalexfoliation can also be used. A schematic of the switching mechanism anda sample current-voltage plot of such a device are shown in FIG. 11 andFIG. 12, respectively

The tunneling NEM switches can also be formed using switching gaps withgraphene forming both the bottom and top electrodes, as shown in FIG.13. This may further assist in the development of a well-definedmolecular gap with minimal surface roughness, thus allowing for moreuniform and repeatable switching performance.

It should also be noted that the above switches may also be incorporatedinto multi-terminal device designs with applications relevant tointegrated systems.

The tunneling NEM switches can also be fabricated usingchemically-synthesized nanomaterials, including gold (Au) nanocubes andnanoplates (see FIG. 14). These single crystalline structures may havesmooth surfaces with sub-nanometer roughness that can assist in formingwell-defined nanometer-scale molecular switching gaps. Furthermore,through chemical synthesis the shape and size of the particles can betuned.

Fabrication of devices based on these nanoparticles may employ amulti-step directed assembly process which can be achieved throughengineering the surfaces and/or interfaces. In one design, Au nanoplatesplaced within 100 nm of each other may form the bottom electrodes whilean Au nanocube bridging the gap may form the top contact as shown inFIG. 15. The Au plates may be assembled such that they are within 100 nmof each other by first modifying the Au nanoplate surface and thenallowing the nanoplates to assemble at the interface between twoimmiscible liquids. This is illustrated in FIG. 16, which shows an imageof two gold nanoplates on a surface aligned side by side and separatedby a 20 nm gap. Gold bonding pads, for example, could be deposited overthe nanoplates at their far extremes to provide for conductivity.

Several strategies have been developed to locate nanocubes on themolecular film bridging the nanogap between the Au plates. One isphysical, and involves using templates that preferentially guide thenanocubes to the desired location. An example of this process is shownin FIG. 17. Other strategies employ chemical interactions of themolecular layer, such as noncovalent click chemistry, directed chemicalbond formation, and electrostatic attraction of chemical groups (FIG.18). A combination of both chemical and physical approaches can also beutilized.

In an alternative design, the device can be fabricated by forming bottomcontacts separated by a gap either through the use of self-assembled Auplates or direct metal deposition techniques. The gap is then bridgedusing a self-assembled monolayer of Au cubes surface functionalized witha molecular thin film of desired thickness (see FIG. 19). An applicationof a voltage between the bottom electrodes causes a decrease in thespacing between the neighboring Au nanocubes. The device can also befabricated by alignment of a nanocube at the edge of the bottomelectrode in a structure similar to shoes shown in FIG. 20.

It should also be noted that the tunneling NEM squitches formed throughuse of chemically synthesized and assembled nanoparticles can also beused to fabricate multi-terminal devices.

Example 2

In this example, a tunable plasmonic gap in which a compressiblemolecular layer is used to define the few nanometer thin gap betweenmetallic surfaces is proposed. The molecular film may allow forcontrolled tuning of the metal-metal distance as it is mechanicallycompressed through an applied external force. The process may bereversible if the molecular film provides an elastically restoringforce. A schematic representation of this process is shown in FIG. 21.Surface plasmons of two metallic surfaces separated by a nanoscape gapmay couple to one another, and the coupling may vary with the distancebetween the metal surfaces. The plasmon resonance of such a nanogapshifts for different metal-metal distances, and can be detectablethrough a shift in the scattering and reflection spectra of thenanostructure (FIG. 22). Controlled tuning of the nanogap by utilizingmolecular films may allow for the development of a dynamically tunableplasmonic gap with applications in areas such as metrology tools forprobing nanoscale mechanical motion and mechanical properties ofmolecular films sensors, actuators, and nanoantennas.

The plasmonic nanogaps can be fabricated using gold bottom contact andcan be formed either through direct deposition techniques or through theuse of chemically synthesized gold nanoplates. The molecular film canthen be formed through thin film deposition techniques, self-assemblythrough chemical bond formation, or electrostatic interaction betweenchemical groups. To form the top metal surface, chemically synthesizedAu nanoparticles such as gold nanocubes can be synthesized andfunctionalized onto the molecular layer surface. FIG. 14 shows scanningelectron micrographs of chemically synthesized Au nanoplates andnanocubes.

Alternatively, systems based on individual tunable nanogaps can also beimplemented. Such a system can be fabricated usingchemically-synthesized nanomaterials, such as gold (Au) nanocubes andnanoplates while utilizing a multi-step process to direct assembly ofthe desired structures. The assembly process may be implemented throughengineering the surfaces and/or interfaces. In one design, Au nanoplatesare placed within 100 nm of each other to form the bottom electrodes anda Au nanocube is placed such that it bridges the gap (FIG. 15). In thisdesign, the application of a voltage between the bottom electrodes mayprovide an electrostatic force that can cause mechanical compression ofthe molecular film as the top electrode moves closer to the bottomcontacts. A shift in the plasmon resonance peak of the system can thenbe detected as the gap is reduced due to the applied voltage.

While several embodiments of the present invention have been describedand illustrated herein, those of ordinary skill in the art will readilyenvision a variety of other means and/or structures for performing thefunctions and/or obtaining the results and/or one or more of theadvantages described herein, and each of such variations and/ormodifications is deemed to be within the scope of the present invention.More generally, those skilled in the art will readily appreciate thatall parameters, dimensions, materials, and configurations describedherein are meant to be exemplary and that the actual parameters,dimensions, materials, and/or configurations will depend upon thespecific application or applications for which the teachings of thepresent invention is/are used. Those skilled in the art will recognize,or be able to ascertain using no more than routine experimentation, manyequivalents to the specific embodiments of the invention describedherein. It is, therefore, to be understood that the foregoingembodiments are presented by way of example only and that, within thescope of the appended claims and equivalents thereto, the invention maybe practiced otherwise than as specifically described and claimed. Thepresent invention is directed to each individual feature, system,article, material, kit, and/or method described herein. In addition, anycombination of two or more such features, systems, articles, materials,kits, and/or methods, if such features, systems, articles, materials,kits, and/or methods are not mutually inconsistent, is included withinthe scope of the present invention.

All definitions, as defined and used herein, should be understood tocontrol over dictionary definitions, definitions in documentsincorporated by reference, and/or ordinary meanings of the definedterms.

The indefinite articles “a” and “an,” as used herein in thespecification and in the claims, unless clearly indicated to thecontrary, should be understood to mean “at least one.”

The phrase “and/or,” as used herein in the specification and in theclaims, should be understood to mean “either or both” of the elements soconjoined, i.e., elements that are conjunctively present in some casesand disjunctively present in other cases. Multiple elements listed with“and/or” should be construed in the same fashion, i.e., “one or more” ofthe elements so conjoined. Other elements may optionally be presentother than the elements specifically identified by the “and/or” clause,whether related or unrelated to those elements specifically identified.Thus, as a non-limiting example, a reference to “A and/or B”, when usedin conjunction with open-ended language such as “comprising” can refer,in one embodiment, to A only (optionally including elements other thanB); in another embodiment, to B only (optionally including elementsother than A); in yet another embodiment, to both A and B (optionallyincluding other elements); etc.

As used herein in the specification and in the claims, “or” should beunderstood to have the same meaning as “and/or” as defined above. Forexample, when separating items in a list, “or” or “and/or” shall beinterpreted as being inclusive, i.e., the inclusion of at least one, butalso including more than one, of a number or list of elements, and,optionally, additional unlisted items. Only terms clearly indicated tothe contrary, such as “only one of” or “exactly one of,” or, when usedin the claims, “consisting of,” will refer to the inclusion of exactlyone element of a number or list of elements. In general, the term “or”as used herein shall only be interpreted as indicating exclusivealternatives (i.e. “one or the other but not both”) when preceded byterms of exclusivity, such as “either,” “one of,” “only one of,” or“exactly one of.” “Consisting essentially of,” when used in the claims,shall have its ordinary meaning as used in the field of patent law.

As used herein in the specification and in the claims, the phrase “atleast one,” in reference to a list of one or more elements, should beunderstood to mean at least one element selected from any one or more ofthe elements in the list of elements, but not necessarily including atleast one of each and every element specifically listed within the listof elements and not excluding any combinations of elements in the listof elements. This definition also allows that elements may optionally bepresent other than the elements specifically identified within the listof elements to which the phrase “at least one” refers, whether relatedor unrelated to those elements specifically identified. Thus, as anon-limiting example, “at least one of A and B” (or, equivalently, “atleast one of A or B,” or, equivalently “at least one of A and/or B”) canrefer, in one embodiment, to at least one, optionally including morethan one, A, with no B present (and optionally including elements otherthan B); in another embodiment, to at least one, optionally includingmore than one, B, with no A present (and optionally including elementsother than A); in yet another embodiment, to at least one, optionallyincluding more than one, A, and at least one, optionally including morethan one, B (and optionally including other elements); etc.

It should also be understood that, unless clearly indicated to thecontrary, in any methods claimed herein that include more than one stepor act, the order of the steps or acts of the method is not necessarilylimited to the order in which the steps or acts of the method arerecited.

In the claims, as well as in the specification above, all transitionalphrases such as “comprising,” “including,” “carrying,” “having,”“containing,” “involving,” “holding,” “composed of,” and the like are tobe understood to be open-ended, i.e., to mean including but not limitedto. Only the transitional phrases “consisting of” and “consistingessentially of” shall be closed or semi-closed transitional phrases,respectively, as set forth in the United States Patent Office Manual ofPatent Examining Procedures, Section 2111.03.

Any terms as used herein related to shape, orientation, alignment,and/or geometric relationship of or between, for example, one or morearticles, structures, forces, fields, flows, directions/trajectories,and/or subcomponents thereof and/or combinations thereof and/or anyother tangible or intangible elements not listed above amenable tocharacterization by such terms, unless otherwise defined or indicated,shall be understood to not require absolute conformance to amathematical definition of such term, but, rather, shall be understoodto indicate conformance to the mathematical definition of such term tothe extent possible for the subject matter so characterized as would beunderstood by one skilled in the art most closely related to suchsubject matter. Examples of such terms related to shape, orientation,and/or geometric relationship include, but are not limited to termsdescriptive of: shape—such as, round, square, circular/circle,rectangular/rectangle, triangular/triangle, cylindrical/cylinder,elliptical/ellipse, (n)polygonal/(n)polygon, etc.; angularorientation—such as perpendicular, orthogonal, parallel, vertical,horizontal, collinear, etc.; contour and/or trajectory—such as,plane/planar, coplanar, hemispherical, semi-hemispherical, line/linear,hyperbolic, parabolic, flat, curved, straight, arcuate, sinusoidal,tangent/tangential, etc.; direction—such as, north, south, east, west,etc.; surface and/or bulk material properties and/or spatial/temporalresolution and/or distribution—such as, smooth, reflective, transparent,clear, opaque, rigid, impermeable, uniform(ly), inert, non-wettable,insoluble, steady, invariant, constant, homogeneous, etc.; as well asmany others that would be apparent to those skilled in the relevantarts. As one example, a fabricated article that would described hereinas being “square” would not require such article to have faces or sidesthat are perfectly planar or linear and that intersect at angles ofexactly 90 degrees (indeed, such an article can only exist as amathematical abstraction), but rather, the shape of such article shouldbe interpreted as approximating a “square,” as defined mathematically,to an extent typically achievable and achieved for the recitedfabrication technique as would be understood by those skilled in the artor as specifically described. As another example, two or more fabricatedarticles that would described herein as being “aligned” would notrequire such articles to have faces or sides that are perfectly aligned(indeed, such an article can only exist as a mathematical abstraction),but rather, the arrangement of such articles should be interpreted asapproximating “aligned,” as defined mathematically, to an extenttypically achievable and achieved for the recited fabrication techniqueas would be understood by those skilled in the art or as specificallydescribed.

1. A device, comprising: a first electrode; a second electrode; and adeformable layer positioned between the first electrode and the secondelectrode, wherein the first electrode is electrically isolated, whereinthe first electrode is a mechanically floating electrode, and whereinthe deformable layer is configured such that tunneling may occur betweenthe first electrode and the second electrode when the deformable layeris compressed.
 2. A device, comprising: a first electrode; a secondelectrode; and a deformable layer positioned between the first electrodeand the second electrode, wherein both the first electrode and thesecond electrode have a surface roughness of less than or equal to 0.5nm, and wherein the deformable layer is configured such that tunnelingmay occur between the first electrode and the second electrode when thedeformable layer is compressed.
 3. A device, comprising: a firstelectrode; a second electrode; and a deformable layer positioned betweenthe first electrode and the second electrode, wherein deformation of thedeformable layer causes a plasmon resonance wavelength to shift from afirst wavelength to a second wavelength.
 4. A method of operating adevice, comprising: receiving or applying a force at at least one of afirst electrode and a second electrode that deforms a deformable layerpositioned between the first electrode and the second electrode suchthat the plasmon resonance wavelength shifts from a first wavelength toa second wavelength.
 5. A device as in claim 1, wherein the devicefurther comprises a third electrode.
 6. A device as in claim 5, whereinthe third electrode is positioned on a side of the deformable layeropposite the first electrode.
 7. A device as in claim 5, wherein thedevice further comprises a fourth electrode.
 8. A device as in claim 7,wherein the fourth electrode is positioned on a side of the deformablelayer opposite the first electrode.
 9. A device as in claim 1, whereinthe device is a split drain device.
 10. A device as in claim 1, whereinthe device is a split gate device.
 11. A device as in claim 5, whereinthe first electrode bridges the second electrode and the thirdelectrode.
 12. A device as in claim 1, wherein at least one of the firstelectrode and the second electrode comprises graphene.
 13. A device asin claim 1, wherein both the first electrode and the second electrodecomprise graphene.
 14. A device as in claim 1, wherein the firstelectrode comprises a nanocube.
 15. A device as in claim 14, wherein aside length of the nanocube between 50 nm and 200 nm.
 16. A device as inclaim 1, wherein the second electrode comprises a nanoplate.
 17. Adevice as in claim 5, wherein the third electrode comprises a nanoplate.18. A device as in claim 1, wherein at least one of the first electrodeand the second electrode are single crystalline.
 19. A device as inclaim 1, wherein both the first electrode and the second electrode aresingle crystalline.
 20. A device as in claim 5, wherein a distancebetween the second electrode and the third electrode is less than orequal to 100 nm.
 21. A device as in claim 5, wherein a distance betweenthe first electrode and the second electrode is within 5% of a distancebetween the first electrode and the third electrode.
 22. A device as inclaim 1, wherein the deformable layer comprises an organic molecule. 23.A device as in claim 1, wherein the deformable layer is adhered to oneor more electrodes by a non-covalent interaction.
 24. A device as inclaim 1, wherein the deformable layer is adhered to one or moreelectrodes by a covalent interaction.
 25. A device as in claim 1,wherein the deformable layer is adhered to one or more electrodes byelectrostatic attraction.
 26. A device as in claim 1, wherein thedeformable layer is adhered to one or more electrodes by one or more ofan adamantane-cyclodextrin interaction and a gold-thiol interaction. 27.A device as in claim 3, wherein both the first wavelength and the secondwavelength are visible wavelengths.
 28. A method as in claim 4, furthercomprising releasing the force, wherein releasing the force causes theplasmon resonance to shift from the second wavelength to the firstwavelength.
 29. A method as in claim 4, wherein applying the forcecomprises forming a potential difference between the first electrode andthe second electrode.
 30. A method as in claim 4, wherein applying aforce comprises forming a potential difference between the secondelectrode and a third electrode.
 31. A method as in claim 4, furthercomprising exposing the device to light.
 32. A method as in claim 4,wherein applying a voltage comprises forming a potential differencebetween the second electrode and a third electrode.
 33. A device as inclaim 1, wherein the device is a sensor.
 34. A device as in claim 1,wherein the device is employed in a display application.